Template:English vowel development

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This table describes the main changes from Late Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Germanic up through Old English, Middle English and Modern English. It focuses on the Old English and Middle English changes leading to the modern forms. Other tables are also available to cover specific areas in more detail:

This table only describes the changes in accented syllables. Vowel changes in unaccented syllables were very different and much more extensive. In general:

  1. In Old English, long vowels were reduced to short vowels (and sometimes deleted entirely) and short vowels were very often deleted. All remaining vowels were reduced to only the vowels /u/, /a/ and /e/, and sometimes /o/. (/o/ also sometimes appears as a variant of unstressed /u/.)
  2. In Middle English, almost all unstressed vowels were reduced to /ə/; then, final /ə/ was dropped. The main exception is Old English -iġ, which becomes Modern English -y.
  3. Unstressed vowels in Modern English other than those spelled <e> are due either to compounds or to borrowed words (especially from Latin and Old French).

NOTE: The Old English words in this table are given in their Anglian form, since this is the form that underlies Modern English. However, standard Old English was based on the West Saxon dialect, and when the two dialects differ, the West Saxon form is indicated with a WS in parentheses following the Anglian form.

NOTE: In this table, abbreviations are used as follows:

1"Pre-Germanic" in this context refers to a post-PIE language that maintains PIE phonology but with morphological adjustments made as necessary to account for the Proto-Germanic form. Reconstructions are only given for solidly reconstructible Proto-Indo-European roots.

Late PIE1 Proto-Germanic1 Condition Old English Middle English Modern English Examples
  Template:OEUmlaut   Template:OEUmlaut   Template:OEUmlaut
a, o, Template:PIE a   æ Template:OEUmlaut /a/ Template:OEUmlaut /æ/; RP /ɑː/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *paþaz > OE pæþ > "path"; Template:OEUmlaut; Template:OEUmlaut
(leng.) /aː/ Template:OEUmlaut /ei/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *hwalaz > OE hwæl > "whale"; Template:OEUmlaut; Template:OEUmlaut
(+g) /ai/ Template:OEUmlaut /ei/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *dagaz > OE dæġ > "day"
(+h) /au/ Template:OEUmlaut /ɔː/; /æf/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *hlahtraz > OE hlæhtor (WS hleahtor) > "laughter"; PG *slahtiz > OE sleht (WS slieht) > ME sleight "slaughter"
+n,m a,o Template:OEUmlaut /a/ (occ. /o/) Template:OEUmlaut /æ/; occ. GA /ɔ/, RP /ɒ/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *mannz, Template:OEUmlaut > OE man, mon > "man", Template:OEUmlaut; PG *hamuraz > OE hamor > "hammer"; PG *handuz > OE hand > "hand"; PG *sange > OE past sang > "sang"; PG *lambaz > OE lamb > "lamb"; Latin candēla > OE candel > "candle"; PG *gandrǫ̂ > OE gandra > "gander"; PG *langaz > OE lang, long > "long"; Template:OEUmlaut; Template:OEUmlaut; Template:OEUmlaut
(leng.) /aː/ Template:OEUmlaut /ei/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *namǫ̂ > OE nama > "name"; PG lamǫ̂ > OE lama > "lame"; PG *banǫ̂ > OE bana "slayer" > "bane"
+mf,nþ,ns ō Template:OEUmlaut /oː/ Template:OEUmlaut /uː/; /ʌ/; /ʊ/ Template:OEUmlaut PreG *donts, dontes > PG *tanþz, Template:OEUmlaut > OE tōþ > "tooth", Template:OEUmlaut; PG *gans, Template:OEUmlaut > OE gōs > "goose", Template:OEUmlaut; PG *anþaraz > OE ōþer > "other"
(+CC) /o/ Template:OEUmlaut GA /ɔ/, RP /ɒ/; GA /ɔː/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *Template:OEUmlaut, samftô > OE Template:OEUmlaut, *sōfta >! OE sōfte > "soft"; Template:OEUmlaut
+lC a Template:OEUmlaut /a/ Template:OEUmlaut /ɔː/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *fallaną > OE fallan (WS feallan) > "to fall"; Template:OEUmlaut
(+ld) /ɔː/ Template:OEUmlaut GA /ou/, RP /əu/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *aldaz, Template:OEUmlaut > OE ald (WS eald) > "old", Template:OEUmlaut; PG *haldaną > OE haldan (WS healdan) > "to hold"
+rc,rg,rh æ > e Template:OEUmlaut /e/ Template:OEUmlaut GA /ɑ/(+r), RP /ɑː/ Template:OEUmlaut Latin arca > OE erc (WS earc) > "ark"
+rC (C not c,g,h) ea Template:OEUmlaut /a/ Template:OEUmlaut GA /ɑ/(+r), RP /ɑː/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *harduz > OE heard > "hard"
before a,o,u a Template:OEUmlaut /a/ Template:OEUmlaut /æ/; RP /ɑː/ Template:OEUmlaut Latin cattus > OE catt > "cat"
(leng.) /aː/ Template:OEUmlaut /ei/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *talō > OE talu > "tale"; PG *bakaną, Template:OEUmlaut > OE bacan > "to bake", Template:OEUmlaut
(+g,w) /au/ Template:OEUmlaut /ɔː/ Template:OEUmlaut PG plur. *dagôs > OE dagas "days" > dial. "dawes"; PG *laguz > OE lagu > "law"; PG *clawō > OE clawu > "claw"
before later a,o,u ea Template:OEUmlaut /a/ Template:OEUmlaut /æ/; (RP) /ɑː/ Template:OEUmlaut
(leng.) /aː/ Template:OEUmlaut /ei/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *alu(þ) > OE ealu > "ale"; Template:OEUmlaut
(+g,w) /au/ Template:OEUmlaut /ɔː/ Template:OEUmlaut Template:OEUmlaut
before hs,ht,hþ + final -iz N/A Template:OEUmlaut N/A Template:OEUmlaut N/A Template:OEUmlaut Template:OEUmlaut
e, Template:PIE, occ. i+C*e,a,o e   e N/A /e/ N/A /ɛ/ N/A PIE *nizdos > PG *nestaz > OE nest > "nest"; PG *helpaną > OE helpan > "to help"; PG *fehtaną > OE fehtan (WS feohtan) "to fight" (irreg.); PG *berkaną > OE bercan (WS beorcan) > "to bark"
(leng.) /ɛː/ N/A /iː/; /ei/; /ɛ/ N/A PG *brekaną > OE brecan > "to break"; PG *ebnaz > OE ef(e)n > "even"; OE feþer > "feather"
(+g,h) /ɛi/ > /ai/ N/A /ei/ N/A PG *wegaz > OE weġ > "way"; PG *regnaz > OE reġn > "rain"; PG *seglaz > OE seġl > "sail"
(+ld) /eː/ N/A /iː/ N/A PG *felduz > OE feld > "field"; PG *geldaną > OE ġeldan (WS ġieldan) "to pay" > "to yield"
+m i N/A /i/ N/A /ɪ/ N/A PG *remǫ̂ > OE rima > "rim"; PG *nemaną > OE niman "to take" > archaic "to nim"
(leng.) /eː/ N/A /iː/ N/A
+rC (C not c,g,h); wV; C (C not c,g) +later a,o,u eo N/A /e/ N/A /ɛ/; (+r) GA /ɑ/(+r), RP /ɑː/ N/A PG *werþaną > OE weorðan "to become"; PG *hertǭ > OE heorte > "heart"
(leng.) /ɛː/ N/A /iː/; /ei/; /ɛ/ N/A PG *etaną > OE eotan (WS etan) > "to eat"; PG *beraną > OE beoran (WS beran) > "to bear"
(+w) /ɛu/ N/A /(j)uː/ N/A
+ late final hs,ht,hþ i (occ. ie) N/A /i/ N/A /ɪ/ N/A PG *sehs > OE siex > "six"; PG *rehtaz > OE riht > "right"
i, (h₁)e+C*i, (h₁)e+C*y, (h₁)e+nC i   i Template:OEUmlaut /i/ Template:OEUmlaut /ɪ/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *fiską > OE fisċ > "fish"; PG *hringaz > OE hring > "ring"; PG *bidjaną > OE biddan "to pray" > "to bid"; Template:OEUmlaut; Template:OEUmlaut; PG *stihtōjaną > OE stihtian "to establish"
(leng.) /eː/ Template:OEUmlaut /iː/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *wikō > OE wicu > "week"
(+g) /iː/ Template:OEUmlaut /ai/ Template:OEUmlaut Latin tegula > OE tiġele > "tile"; Template:OEUmlaut
(+ld,nd) /iː/ Template:OEUmlaut /ai/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *blindaz > OE blind > "blind" /blaind/; PG *kildaz (plur. *kildōzō) OE ċild > "child" /tʃaild/; Template:OEUmlaut
+ mf,nþ,ns ī Template:OEUmlaut /iː/ Template:OEUmlaut /ai/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *fimf > OE fīf > "five"; Template:OEUmlaut
(+CC) /i/ Template:OEUmlaut /ɪ/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *fimf tigiwiz > OE fīftiġ > "fifty"
+rC (C not c,g,h); w io > eo Template:OEUmlaut /e/ Template:OEUmlaut /ɛ/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *liznōjaną > OE liornian > OE leornian > "learn"; Template:OEUmlaut
(+w) /eu/ > /iu/ Template:OEUmlaut /(j)uː/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *niwulaz > OE niowul, neowul "prostrate"; Template:OEUmlaut; Template:OEUmlaut
before a,o,u i (io, eo) N/A /i/ (/e/) N/A /ɪ/ (/ɛ/) N/A PG *milukz > OE mioluc,meolc > "milk"
(leng.) /eː/ (/ɛː/) N/A /iː/ (/iː/; /ei/; /ɛ/) N/A
(+g) /iː/ (/ɛi/ > /ai/) Template:OEUmlaut /ai/ (/ei/) Template:OEUmlaut
u, Template:PIE(H), Template:PIE(H), Template:PIE(H), Template:PIE(H)3 u   u Template:OEUmlaut /u/ Template:OEUmlaut /ʌ/; /ʊ/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *sunuz > OE sunu > "son"; PG *kumaną, Template:OEUmlaut > OE cuman > "to come", Template:OEUmlaut; Template:OEUmlaut
(leng.) /oː/ Template:OEUmlaut /uː/; /ʌ/; /ʊ/; (+r) GA /ɔr/, RP /ɔː/ Template:OEUmlaut PreG *dhurus > PG *duruz > OE duru > "door"; PG *widuz > OE widu >! OE wudu > "wood"; PG *ubilaz > Template:OEUmlaut
(+g) /uː/ Template:OEUmlaut /au/ Template:OEUmlaut Template:OEUmlaut
(+w) /uː/ Template:OEUmlaut /au/ Template:OEUmlaut
+ mf,nþ,ns ū Template:OEUmlaut /uː/ Template:OEUmlaut /au/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *munþz > OE mūþ > "mouth"; Template:OEUmlaut
(+CC) /u/ Template:OEUmlaut /ʌ/; /ʊ/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *tunskaz > OE tūsc > "tusk"; Template:OEUmlaut; Template:OEUmlaut
before non-nasal + a,e,o o Template:OEUmlaut /o/ Template:OEUmlaut GA /ɔ/, RP /ɒ/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *drupǫ̂ > OE dropa > "drop"; PG *fulką > OE folc > "folk"
(leng.) /ɔː/ Template:OEUmlaut GA /ou/, RP /əu/; (+r) GA /ɔr/, RP /ɔː/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *fulǫ̂ > OE fola > "foal"; PG *nusuz (*nusōu?) > OE nosu > "nose"; PG *hupōjaną > OE hopian > "to hope"
(+g,h,w) /ɔu/ Template:OEUmlaut GA /ou/, RP /əu/; GA /ɔːf/, RP /ɒf/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *duhter, Template:OEUmlaut > OE dohter > "daughter", Template:OEUmlaut; PG *trugaz > OE trog > "trough"; PG *bugǫ̂ > OE boga > "bow" /bou/
(+ld,rd) /ɔː/ Template:OEUmlaut GA /ou/, RP /əu/; (+r) GA /ɔr/, RP /ɔː/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *guldaz > OE gold > "gold"; PG *burdą > OE bord > "board"
ē(H), eh₁ ǣ > ā   ē Template:OEUmlaut /eː/ Template:OEUmlaut /iː/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *slǣpaną > OE slēpan (WS slǣpan) > "to sleep", Latin strāta > OE strēt (WS strǣt) > "street"; Template:OEUmlaut; Template:OEUmlaut
(+CC) /e/ Template:OEUmlaut /ɛ/ Template:OEUmlaut
(+g,h) /iː/ Template:OEUmlaut /ai/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *nǣhaz, Template:OEUmlaut > OE nēh (WS nēah) "near" > "nigh", Template:OEUmlaut
+n,m ō Template:OEUmlaut /oː/ Template:OEUmlaut /uː/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *mǣnǫ̂ > OE mōna > "moon"; Template:OEUmlaut
+w; ga,go,gu ā Template:OEUmlaut /ɔː/ Template:OEUmlaut GA /ou/, RP /əu/ Template:OEUmlaut
(+g) /ɔu/ Template:OEUmlaut GA /ou/, RP /əu/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *mǣgôz > OE māgas "relatives"
(+w) /ɔu/ Template:OEUmlaut GA /ou/, RP /əu/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *knǣwaną, Template:OEUmlaut > OE cnāwan > "to know", Template:OEUmlaut
ēi, iz, etc.4 ē   ē Template:OEUmlaut /eː/ Template:OEUmlaut /iː/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *hēr > OE hēr > "here"; PIE *mizdhā > PG *mēdō > OE mēd "reward"
(+g,h) /iː/ Template:OEUmlaut /ai/ Template:OEUmlaut OE past hēht "called" > "hight"
(+w) /eu/ > /iu/ Template:OEUmlaut /(j)uː/ Template:OEUmlaut
ā, ō, aH, oH, eh₂, eh₃; an+K, on+K, h₂en+K, h₃en+K ō; ą̄+h   ō Template:OEUmlaut /oː/ Template:OEUmlaut /uː/; /ʌ/; /ʊ/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *fōtz, Template:OEUmlaut > OE fōt > "foot", Template:OEUmlaut
(+CC) /o/ Template:OEUmlaut GA /ɔ/, RP /ɒ/; GA /ɔː/ Template:OEUmlaut Template:OEUmlaut; Template:OEUmlaut
(+g,h) /uː/ Template:OEUmlaut /au/; /ʌf/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *swōganą > OE swōgan "to sound" > ME /suːə/ > "sough" /sau/; PG *bōgaz > OE bōg > ME /buːh/ > "bough" /bau/; PG *tōhaz > OE tōh > ME /tuːh/ > "tough" /tʌf/; PG past *sōh-dǣþ > OE sōhte > ME /sɔuhtə/ > "sought"
(+w) /ɔu/ Template:OEUmlaut GA /ou/, RP /əu/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *grōwaną > OE grōwan > "grow"
(h₁)ei, ī, iH; (h₁)en+K, in+K ī; į̄+h   ī Template:OEUmlaut /iː/ Template:OEUmlaut /ai/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *wībą > OE wīf > "wife"; Template:OEUmlaut; PIE *lengwhtos > PG *lį̄htaz > OE līht (WS lēoht) > "light" (in weight)
(+CC) /i/ Template:OEUmlaut /ɪ/ Template:OEUmlaut
(+g,h) /iː/ Template:OEUmlaut /ai/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *hīgōjaną > OE hīgian > "hie"
(+w) /iu/ Template:OEUmlaut /(j)uː/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *Tīwaz > OE Tīw (name of a god) + -es "'s" + dæġ "day" > "Tuesday"
ū, uH; Template:PIE, un+K ū; ų̄+h   ū Template:OEUmlaut /uː/ Template:OEUmlaut /au/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *mūs, Template:OEUmlaut > OE mūs "mouse", Template:OEUmlaut; Template:OEUmlaut
(+CC) /u/ Template:OEUmlaut /ʌ/; /ʊ/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *rūstaz > OE rūst > "rust"; Template:OEUmlaut
(+g,h) /uː/ Template:OEUmlaut /au/; /ʌf/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *būganą > OE būgan "to bend" > "bow"; PG *rūhaz > OE rūh > "rough" /rʌf/; Template:OEUmlaut
(+w) /uː/ Template:OEUmlaut /au/ Template:OEUmlaut OE trūwian "to trust" > archaic "trow" /trau/
ai, oi, h₂ei, h₃ei ai   ā Template:OEUmlaut /ɔː/ Template:OEUmlaut GA /ou/, RP /əu/; (+r) GA /ɔr/, RP /ɔː/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *stainaz > OE stān > "stone"; PreG perfect *roidhe > PG past *raide > OE rād > "rode"; PreG *oyerā > PG *airō > OE ār > "oar"; PIE *ayes > PG *aiz > OE ār "bronze" > "ore"; Template:OEUmlaut
(+CC) /a/ Template:OEUmlaut /æ/; RP /ɑː/ Template:OEUmlaut Template:OEUmlaut
(+g,h) /ɔu/ Template:OEUmlaut GA /ou/, RP /əu/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *aiganą > OE āgan > "owe"; PG *daigaz > OE dāg, dāh > "dough"
(+w) /ɔu/ Template:OEUmlaut GA /ou/, RP /əu/ Template:OEUmlaut Template:OEUmlaut
au, ou, h₂eu, h₃eu au   ēa Template:OEUmlaut /ɛː/ Template:OEUmlaut /iː/; /ei/; /ɛ/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *auzǭ > OE ēare > "ear"; Template:OEUmlaut
(+w) /ɛu/ Template:OEUmlaut /(j)uː/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *skrawwǫ̂ > OE sċrēawa > ME "shrewe" > "shrew"
+c,g,h; rc,rg,rh;lc,lg,lh ē Template:OEUmlaut /eː/ Template:OEUmlaut /iː/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *auke(?), *aukijaną > OE ēc, Template:OEUmlaut (WS ēac, Template:OEUmlaut) "also, Template:OEUmlaut" > ME "eke, Template:OEUmlaut" > "eke" (archaic), Template:OEUmlaut
(+g,h) /iː/ Template:OEUmlaut /ai/ Template:OEUmlaut PG *augǭ > OE ēġe (WS ēage) > "eye"; PG *hauhaz, Template:OEUmlaut > OE hēh (WS hēah) > "high", Template:OEUmlaut; PIE *leuktos > PG *leuhtaz > OE lēht (WS lēoht) > "light" (brightness)
(h₁)eu eu   ēo N/A /eː/ N/A /iː/ N/A PG *deupaz > OE dēop > "deep"; PG *beudaną > OE bēodan "to command"
(+w) /eu/ > /iu/ N/A /(j)uː/ N/A PG *hrewwaną > OE hrēowan > "to rue"
+c,g,h; rc,rg,rh; lc,lg,lh ē N/A /eː/ N/A /iː/ N/A PG *reukaną > OE rēcan (WS rēocan) > "to reek"
(+g,h) /iː/ N/A /ai/ N/A PG *fleugǭ > OE flēge (WS flēoge) > "fly"; PG *leuganą > OE lēgan (WS lēogan) > "to lie"
(h₁)eu+C*i, (h₁)eu+C*y iu   N/A Template:OEUmlaut N/A Template:OEUmlaut N/A Template:OEUmlaut Template:OEUmlaut; Template:OEUmlaut
(+w) N/A Template:OEUmlaut N/A Template:OEUmlaut Template:OEUmlaut
+c,g,h; rc,rg,rh; lc,lg,lh N/A Template:OEUmlaut N/A Template:OEUmlaut /ai/ Template:OEUmlaut Template:OEUmlaut

1A + separates the sounds that produced the Proto-Germanic vowels in question from the sounds that formed the conditioning environment. The notation C* means a sequence of zero or more consonants.

2I-umlaut refers to a sound change that took place around 500 AD with pervasive effects on English vowels. Specifically, vowels were fronted or raised whenever an /i/ or /j/ followed in the next syllable. Nearly every vowel was affected. Affected vocabulary is shown in a different color.

3PIE Template:PIE and Template:PIEH became Proto-Germanic un; similarly for Template:PIE, Template:PIE and Template:PIE. K refers to either of the PIE sounds or k, which fell together in Proto-Germanic and the other Centum languages; or to any of the nine PIE velars when followed directly by a voiceless consonant (especially t). H refers to any laryngeal sound. The ogonek (e.g. ą, ǭ) indicates a nasal vowel. Long vowels are noted with a macron (e.g. ē, ō). Extralong vowels are noted with a circumflex (e.g. ô).

4The origins of Proto-Germanic ē are somewhat in dispute.


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